Analysis of modern IoT solutions for automation of urban parking spaces

Abstract

This work presents a comprehensive analysis and systematization of modern hardware and software solutions based on Internet of Things (IoT) technologies, designed to automate urban parking spaces within the “Smart City” concept. The technical characteristics, accuracy (ranging from 85% to over 98%), and limitations of the main types of sensors were investigated: magnetometers, ultrasonic sensors, video analytics systems (in particular, based on YOLOv8–YOLOv11 architectures), and radars/LiDAR. The relationship between sensor types and data transmission protocols (LPWAN, LoRaWAN, NB-IoT, Wi-Fi, 4G/5G) was analyzed, and a critical relationship between the volume of generated traffic and the system’s energy efficiency was identified. Based on a comparative analysis, practical recommendations are formulated for selecting the optimal technology stack for different types of parking areas (street parking, covered multi-story parking, and large open-air lots), enabling informed design decisions during the modernization of urban mobility.